science Archives

June 19, 2023June 18, 2023

The Cosmological Argument for God

Cosmology provides strong evidence for God’s existence. The basic cosmological argument for God involves three simple questions:

1) Was there a beginning to time, space, and matter/energy? The evidence says there was.

2) Was the beginning caused or uncaused? Taking the position it was uncaused violates scientific conservation laws.

3) If it was caused, what or who was the causer? The evidence is that the cause can not be blind, mechanistic chance. Logic suggests that the cause was an intelligence, in other words, God.

As more data becomes available to support intelligence as the cause of planet Earth, the cosmological argument for God becomes stronger. If we define life as that which can breathe, move, respond to outside stimuli, and reproduce, what is necessary for life to exist? Astronomers now talk about the habitable zone (HZ) of stars. This is the zone around stars where the temperature on a planet would allow water to exist in the liquid state on the surface.

Recent discoveries have shown that M-class dwarf stars are the most common and longest-lived stars. The problem with these stars is that their HZ is very close to the star, so tidal forces would lock the rotation of any planet so its same side would always face the parent star. One side of the planet would be constantly hot while the other would be cold. Also, M-class stars would bombard these planets with stellar flares causing massive radiation levels that would eliminate any possibility of life. Other star types create various problems for a life-supporting planet.

Astronomers have determined there is a galactic habitable zone (GHZ) in addition to the star’s habitable zone. A star must be far from the galactic center to have a planet with life on it. The high star density near the core of a galaxy exposes the star system to deadly supernovae and gamma-ray bursts. Mass distribution within a galaxy is also an issue because, near the galaxy’s core, mass concentrations cause gravitational instability.

The basic cosmological argument for God is now supported by a vast number of parameters that must be within precise limits to allow life to exist in a planetary system. Having a large moon is essential to the survival of life on a planet. Likewise, having a shield against incoming cosmic bodies is critical. A body the size of Comet Hale Bopp hitting planet Earth would have sterilized it, killing even microbes that might be present. The Earth’s shield is the arrangement of the Jovian planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune preventing objects like Hale Bopp from reaching Earth.

The more we look at the cosmos, the unique qualities of our planet reinforce the cosmological argument for God. Proverbs 8 personifies Wisdom speaking of God’s creative power and design. As we learn more about the cosmos, the stronger the evidence becomes that “in the beginning God created the heavens and the earth” (Genesis 1:1).

Reference: “Is Earth the Only Goldilocks Planet?” by Klaus R. Brasch in Astronomy Magazine for July 2023, pages 18-23.

June 16, 2023June 19, 2023

Predictions of Earth’s Demise Are Highly Exaggerated

With many world issues to be concerned about, politicians and the media are predicting the end of the Earth because of global warming. Yes, climate change is real, but predictions of Earth’s demise are highly exaggerated.

U.S. Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez received widespread media coverage as she predicted the end of humanity would happen within 12 years. Politicians today continue to scream that the end of the Earth is near. The media quoted our current administration with these words: “The world is facing a grave emergency…Every week brings new climate-related devastation. Floods. Drought. Heat waves. Wildfires, Superstorms … We are in a battle for our lives … Climate change is the biggest threat to the global economy.”

There is no question that we need to take steps to improve our planet, but predictions of Earth’s demise are highly exaggerated. The prophets of doom are not only inaccurate, but they are unsettling. Consider the following facts which you won’t see in most of the media:

1. The number of hurricanes annually making landfall in the U.S. has declined since 1900. That is also true for major hurricanes – category three and above. The second-lowest recorded year was 2022.
2. The wildfires in Australia in 2019 and 2020 were close to Sydney and Melbourne, where the major news organizations are, so the coverage was exaggerated. The total number of fires in Australia as a whole was one of the lowest levels on record. The amount of burned areas over the entire planet has dramatically declined over the past 25 years.
3. In the 1920s, roughly 500,000 people died annually due to climate. That number has been dropping to approximately 11,000 people in 2022.
4. In 1890, renewable sources produced 94% of the world’s energy (mostly wood). In 2021, 16% of the world’s energy was from renewable sources.
5. Unlike the politicians’ proposal of net zero by 2050, the most optimistic model suggests we could reach 95%. However, the cost would be roughly $11,000 per person per year.
6. Yale climate economist William Nordhaus received the Nobel Prize in economics in 2018 for his studies comparing the cost of climate change and climate policy. He showed that restricting the average world temperature to a 6.75 degrees Fahrenheit rise, instead of the 7.4 degrees that it will rise if we do nothing, would cost 20 trillion dollars. Limiting the increase to 5.3 degrees would cost about 100 trillion dollars.

The bottom line is that the media and the politicians are exaggerating the long-term effects of climate change and underestimating the economic cost of climate policy. Motivating people to do something is good, but we must consider the cost and apply innovation to do the job efficiently.

God created a resilient Earth, and we must recognize the challenges and be good stewards of God’s gifts. All the hand-wringing of the media and the politicians accomplishes very little. Predictions of Earth’s demise are highly exaggerated.

Reference: “Thinking Smartly About Climate Change” by Bjorn Lomborg in Imprimis for April/May 2023, Volume 52, Number 4/5.

June 12, 2023June 11, 2023

Freeing Up Nitrogen Atoms

Nitrogen is an essential ingredient in biological molecules, such as proteins and DNA, but nitrogen must be in a free state for these molecules to form. By that, we mean nitrogen atoms that are not already bonded to each other, making them inert. Seventy-eight percent of our atmosphere consists of nitrogen, but nitrogen atoms in the air are bonded with other nitrogen atoms to form nitrogen molecules that are chemically inert. It takes enormous amounts of energy to tear apart nitrogen molecules, freeing up nitrogen atoms to bond with other elements.

A nitrogen atom can be useful for life when it bonds with three oxygen atoms to make nitrate. Nitrogen can also bond with three hydrogen atoms making ammonia, which is also useful for life. This is a complicated issue because Earth’s early atmosphere did not contain much oxygen, so the rock record shows nitrogen bonded to hydrogen atoms. Ammonia has a very low gram molecular weight, so it can escape Earth’s gravity. We see large amounts of ammonia in the atmospheres of our Jovian planets, but that is because their large masses provide enough gravity to hold on to the ammonia.

Humans create nitrogen fertilizer through chemical and electrical processes. But that method of freeing up nitrogen atoms is complex and requires a lot of energy. Scientists in the past have theorized that microbes could have been the method of nitrogen fixation, reducing the nitrogen to nitrates. This is a “chicken-egg” problem because nitrates had to be in existence for the microbes to exist. Freeing up nitrogen atoms would require some non-biologic processes. Studies have shown that electric discharges in lightning have enough energy to tear apart nitrogen molecules, but the rate is insufficient to account for all the nitrogen needed.

New research on volcanoes has shown that eruptions release oxygen and supply enough energy to tear apart nitrogen molecules that bond with oxygen. The nitrates produced would accumulate, allowing life to survive. Studies have shown that a strong volcanic eruption can produce about 60 million tons of nitrate. In 2022 the Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano in Indonesia produced 400,000 discharges in one day.

As we learn more about the chemistry and physics required for freeing up nitrogen to allow life to exist on this planet, the complexity and design of the system astound many researchers. The Bible merely says God did it, but not how or what complexities were involved. Everywhere we look, we see that a wounder-working hand has gone before. Nitrogen is an excellent example of how much wisdom, power, and planning was required for a life-bearing planet to come into existence.

Reference: Science News for June 3, 2023, page 7.

June 8, 2023June 1, 2023

The Nutritional Value of Oysters

We live in an age when worldwide food supplies are limited, and there is incredible food waste in America. However, one food source God has given us is present in all of the world’s oceans. It is the five species of oysters harvested in the United States and many places worldwide. The nutritional value of oysters and their availability makes them an important food source.

Oysters are a keystone species that filter and clean sea water by consuming microorganisms. The average female oyster will produce up to 100,000,000 eggs a year. However, humans’ indiscriminate harvesting of wild oysters has reduced oyster populations in the U.S.A. to only 1% of what they were in the 1800s. In addition to the wild oyster population, these mollusks can be grown in artificial environments anywhere. Artificial tanks can use the runoff from forests, wetlands, and marshes to feed the oysters.

The nutritional value of oysters is well known. According to WebMD, six medium-sized oysters would produce 50 calories, 1 gram of fat, 21 mg of cholesterol, 150 mg of sodium, 5 grams of carbohydrates, and 4 grams of protein. For an American on a 2000-calorie diet, this serving would provide 28% of the daily iron needs, 4% of the vitamin C, and 3% of the calcium. Oysters are also an excellent source of vitamin B12, essential for brain health. They are also rich in vitamin D, copper, zinc, and manganese, all micronutrients that may help to prevent bone loss and osteoporosis.

Our food shortages are not because God hasn’t provided what we need. Current problems of land use, waste disposal, and nutritional deficiencies would be over if humans decided they have had enough war, greed, selfishness, pride, and arrogance. If we would start wisely using what God has given us and applying what we know, we could end hunger and malnutrition on the planet.

References: USA Today for April 23, 2023, page 5PE and WebMD.com.

June 7, 2023June 1, 2023

Tardigrades Have Incredible Resilience

NASA’s “Astronomy Picture of the Day” for May 21, 2023, shows a small creature called a tardigrade crawling on some moss. The picture is an electron micrograph of the tardigrade, which is a millimeter long (0.0393701 inches). Most tardigrades range between 0.3 and 0.5 mm. They eat plants and bacteria and help convert them to other forms essential to molding and shaping the environment. In addition, tardigrades have incredible resilience to adverse conditions.

Tardigrades can go for decades without food or water. They can withstand temperatures near absolute zero but can also survive in boiling water. They can survive in pressures well above what has been measured on the ocean floor or even in a near-perfect vacuum. Tardigrades have incredible resilience, allowing them to survive direct exposure to high radiation levels. They can repair their own DNA or reduce their body water content to a few percent.

They were first described in 1773 by a German zoologist who called them “little water bears.” Then, in 1777, an Italian biologist gave them the “tardigrade” name, which means “slow walker.” These creatures remind us that living things too small to see with normal human vision are major movers and shapers of higher life forms.
The formation of unseen life systems that allow us to exist demonstrates life’s complexity. It demands an acceptance of the fact that we are not just a chance collision of atoms. The more we see of life and design in the creation, the more we comprehend the magnitude of the Creator’s power and wisdom.

Reference: NASA’s Astronomy Picture of the Day

June 5, 2023June 1, 2023

Chondrite Meteorites from Space

What are the odds of you getting hit by a rock that came to the Earth from Mars? A New Jersey woman named Suzy Kop walked into an empty bedroom in her house and found a hole in her ceiling and a still-warm six-inch potato-shaped rock on the floor. Scientists studying it have concluded it is one of the rare stony chondrite meteorites, dating back to the beginning of the solar system.

The word “chondrite” comes from the Greek “chondres,” meaning sand grain. Such rocks from space contain tiny, millimeter-sized granules, iron and nickel alloys, and as much as 50% silicate minerals. There are several different kinds of meteorites. Some are called “irons” because they are almost entirely made of iron and nickel alloys. Others, called “stoney irons,” have silicate minerals in addition to iron and nickel alloys. In addition, carbonaceous chondrite meteorites contain water, sulfur, and even some organic material.

In their excavations of ancient cities, archaeologists have found knives and various other objects made of meteoric iron material. Ling before humans learned how to smelt iron to make tools and weapons, they found iron meteorites and pounded them into useful tools. (See “Metal From the Heavens” in National Geographic for June 2023, pages 102-104.) Genesis 4:22 refers to Tubal-Cain, a son of Lamech, “who forged all kinds of tools out of bronze and iron.” However, early humans used iron meteorites long before Tubal-Cain forged tools.

The question of why there are different kinds of meteorites is of greater interest. The answer is that the meteorites came from the formation of different objects in various places in the cosmos. Scientists believe iron meteorites came from the cores of asteroids or planets where extreme heat would allow only resistant metals to exist. Silicate minerals were probably ejected from planets with less heat and lower pressure. Some stoney chondrite meteorites have the same chemical composition as Mars, so they probably came from that planet.

In 2018 the Japanese Hayabusa2 spacecraft brought back samples from the asteroid Ryugu. The samples contained uracil, which is a building block of RNA. Some astronomers believe a planet exploded and that many meteorites, as well as Ryugu are what remain from that explosion.

Researchers are sampling other asteroids, but the message is that space is full of the remains of God’s creative actions. Likewise, the existence of planet Earth and the life on it tells us that this is indeed a unique place that we need to care for and preserve.

References: Nature Communications for March 21, 2023, and The Week for May 26, 2023, page 12.

May 31, 2023May 30, 2023

Misunderstanding the Big Bang

Religionists and atheists alike continue to make statements that indicate that they are misunderstanding the Big Bang. Some religionists ridicule the idea that an explosion could cause the order and design we see in the cosmos. They don’t realize that the scientific theory of the creation event is not a mere explosion. On the other hand, some atheists refer to the enormous explosions we see in space as proof that there have been multiple “bangs,” and one of them could produce what we see around us. They don’t seem to realize these are explosions of existing material. The original creation event involved something coming from nothing.

There is no question that incredible explosions are taking place in space. In October of 2022, astronomers observed a gamma-ray burst that was the most powerful explosion they had seen up to that time. They labeled it “BOAT” for “brightest of all time.” They theorized that the collapse of a black hole produced it. Some atheists suggested that this was proof that the collapse of black holes could produce the creation we see in our universe. That is an example of misunderstanding the Big Bang.

Now the “brightest of all time” has been exceeded by a much more powerful explosion emitting two trillion times the light of our Sun and ten times the energy of the brightest supernova ever observed. Labeled AT2021lwx, this object, eight billion light years away, is 100 times the size of our solar system and is emitting steady radiation 100 times more than our Sun will emit in its entire lifetime. At the time of this report, there is no scientific explanation of what AT2021lwx is.

Whatever AT2021lwx is, it is not the same as the Big Bang, nor is there any connection between creation and objects like AT2021lwx. A wide range of scientific observations support the Big Bang concept, but it was not an object that exploded. The cosmic creation event, whatever you call it, was a point where time, space, and matter/energy came into existence. There was a beginning, as Genesis 1:1 tells us.

In addition to misunderstanding the Big Bang, there is not and will never be a scientific explanation for it because scientific laws do not describe or apply to what took place. Objects like AT2021lwx are simply transformations of matter/energy that continuously produce the elements of our cosmos. What we see as we observe such things as the cosmic background radiation and the red-shift of galaxies moving away from us are the after-effects of God’s creation of time, space, and matter/energy. This is real creation, and no exploding object duplicates the nature or fine-tuning of the creation event.

AT2021lwx is a testimony to the incredible power and energy present in the creation. We get a small glimpse of how powerful God is when we see objects such as this. There will probably be a workable theory as to what caused AT2021lwx, but like all observations in space, it is simply another statement of Psalms 9:1: “The heavens declare the glory of God, and the skies show the work of His hands.

Reference: “Astronomers Explain What Caused the Largest Cosmic Explosion Ever Seen” on TIME.COM for May 12, 2023, at 2:53 PM EDT.

May 30, 2023May 30, 2023

The Careless Use of Chemicals to Control Pests

One of the significant challenges we face is dealing with biological pests. In the United States, the accepted pest control method is using chemicals to kill anything that affects crop growing, spreads diseases, or just annoys us. We use weed and vegetation killers, insect sprays, chemical treatments for trees, and chemicals for the soil to make our lives more comfortable and increase the food supply. Unfortunately, the problems caused by the careless use of chemicals to control pests become more evident as we see the collateral damage and the cost of chemical production and distribution.

The current battle over the potential cancer-causing effect of Roundup reminds us of the health damage Agent Orange caused for military personnel in Vietnam. On a personal note, my younger brother died from the effects of Agent Orange that he was exposed to during his military service. We need to realize that God has given us tools to control negative environmental influences without the careless use of chemicals.

Studies show that the collateral damage from air pollution and ground-level ozone includes increased heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and dementia. Even aggression among animals and humans increases when pollution levels rise. For example, a study of 70,000 U.S. cases showed more people were bitten by dogs on smoggy days.

American foulbrood is a bacterial disease that has wiped out many broods of honey bees and is apparently catalyzed by pesticides used on crops that bees pollinate. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has approved an oral honeybee vaccine against the disease. But, again, this is an example of collateral damage from the careless use of chemicals to control pests.

Natural pest control avoids collateral damage. For example, vineyard owners near Cape Town, South Africa, use a group of domesticated Indian runner ducks to eat the snails and bugs that infect their vines. In addition to eating the pests, the ducks leave natural fertilizer to nourish the vines.

People use bats to eat insect pests in various places worldwide. Locust swarms are not an issue where bat populations are large. Insecticides can cause the death of songbirds, and as the bird populations decline, insect swarms increase, creating more problems. Even removing fish and frog populations harms pest control, as fish and frogs eat many insects and their larvae.

God has built pest controls into our planet, but humans often upset the balance. Restoring natural controls is within our reach, but people often believe the careless use of chemicals to control pests is easier and more profitable. Unfortunately, ignoring God’s design leads to health problems linked to the chemicals we dump on our land and into our rivers, lakes, and oceans.

References: “What pollution does to you” in the March 25, 2023, issue of Science News, “The list of diseases linked to air pollution is growing” in Science News, September 2017, and Solutions, a publication of the Environmental Defense Fund.

May 25, 2023May 25, 2023

Deciding Who is Human and Who Isn’t

The Bible tells us that humans are created in the image of God, giving us a spiritual nature – a soul. That means all races and sexes of humans are equal. Galatians 3:28 says it well, “you are all one in Christ Jesus.” While that is speaking of Christians, it applies to all humans since anyone can become a Christian. Those who reject belief in God have a harder time deciding who is human and who isn’t.

In the past, people justified slavery based on the claim that certain racial groups were not human and thus could be exploited by those deemed human. People today use the same illogic to justify abortion.

People use various criteria for deciding who is human and who isn’t. For example, when I was a young college student in the 1950s, we were told that the ability to make and use tools was the deciding factor. That teaching was nullified when researchers found that many animals make and use tools. For example, researchers have seen macaques in Phang Nga Bay in Thailand crack nuts with stones and discard sharp flakes, similar to early human tools.

More recently, anthropologists have suggested that the ability to recognize yourself in a mirror is evidence of self-awareness and is a cognitive ability unique to humans. One reason for this interpretation is that chimps and orangutans show they recognize themselves when they look in a mirror. That led to the conclusion that chimps, orangutans, and humans are all one family. However, a recent study of bluestreak cleaner wrasses by cognitive scientists at Osaka Metropolitan University in Japan has shown that these inch-long fish can recognize themselves in a mirror.

When researchers put a parasite-like mark on cleaner wrasses’ throats and allowed the fish to see their reflection in a mirror, they rubbed themselves on rocks to remove the mark. The wrasse could also pick its picture out of four photos that included three other wrasses. It’s essential to point out that self-awareness allows the physical survival of these fish because the wrasses eat parasites off the bodies of other fish. Knowing which fish will seek their help and which will eat them involves recognizing faces. This private awareness is a survival feature God has given them and doesn’t translate to emotions, thoughts, or language.

Humans are unique because of our spiritual nature, created in God’s image. Therefore, other criteria for deciding who is human and who isn’t are doomed to failure.

Reference: Scientific American, June 2023, pages 16 and 19.

May 24, 2023May 23, 2023

How Humans Avoided Being Eaten by Carnivores

Have you ever considered how humans avoided being eaten by carnivores in ancient times since we are essentially defenseless? We aren’t stronger than large carnivores, have no teeth or claws for defense, can’t run very fast, and do not have camouflage. So if you believe in survival of the fittest, it is pretty obvious humans should not have survived.

The research done by scientists reveals some incredible planning that allows us to exist. Consider these facts:

1) Human color vision is unique from that of other animals. For example, carnivores have dichromatic vision with two color cones, while humans have three. Hunters can wear red and not spook their prey because the prey does not have red cones.

2) Human vision has better angular resolution than other animals allowing greater spatial processing. We can tell where an animal is long before it can see us. When you walk your dog, you can see another dog long before your dog does, and you know how far away it is.

3) Humans have group behavior and group communication. Our speech lets a group know what the carnivore is and where it is. Our brains have sound and behavior connected. Carnivores have blind-deaf disembodied brains, meaning that sight and sound are not connected in a carnivore’s brain. Seeing a human or hearing one does not tell the carnivore whether the human is a useful food source. In addition, a carnivore would have to fight a group of humans prepared for its attack, requiring more energy to track down than the energy it would get from eating one of us.

Studies by biologists have shown that if zebras and antelopes had the same visual and sound connections to their brains as humans, lions would starve to death. So God’s design is how humans avoided being eaten by carnivores that are stronger than us. These features, and our intelligence, allowed us to survive.

After the flood, God told Noah, “And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, on every bird of the air, on all that move on the earth, and on all the fish of the sea. They are given into your hand” (Genesis 9:2). So that is how humans avoided being eaten by carnivores. God designed the life system, including the animals that physically could use man as a food source, in a way that humans could exist. We are unique in our spiritual makeup in God’s image and in our physical bodies designed for survival.

Reference: “Comparative study of fibrillar collagen arrangement in the corneas of primates and other mammals” in Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology, 290(12), 1542 – 1550.