science Archives

October 2, 2025October 2, 2025

Shark-Skin Biomimicry

Human engineers often draw inspiration from the natural world. When they adapt these designs for human use, it’s called biomimicry. Shark-skin biomimicry utilizes the design principles that enable sharks to move smoothly and quickly through water, applying them for industrial and practical purposes.

In addition to its body shape, a shark’s ability to swim swiftly and quietly through the water is largely due to the design of their skin. Shark skin has a textured pattern, known as riblets, that helps reduce water drag. Researchers at U.C. Berkeley and MIT explored ways to adapt this shark skin design to reduce the water’s drag on towed sonar arrays (TSAs) used by ships and submarines. They discovered that rectangular riblets could cut drag by 5% or more and reduce noise by 14%. Noise reduction is very important for sonar, which depends on detecting sound echoes. Less noise also benefits marine wildlife.

Another application of shark-skin design is in water distribution systems. Biomimetic riblets inside water pipes can lessen turbulence as water flows through. Reducing turbulence and drag decreases the energy needed to pump water to its destination. This means lower costs for supplying water to homes. Researchers found that, under ideal conditions, drag can be cut by up to 10%.

According to another study, shark-skin biomimicry can also improve the efficiency of microchannel heat sinks. Microelectronic components in computers and other devices can be damaged by heat. The researchers reported that “the shark-skin based bionic structure had higher heat transfer capacity and lower friction loss.”

Looking at nature’s designs reveals wisdom at work. Shark-skin biomimicry offers benefits in aviation, marine transportation, water systems, and the cooling of microelectronics. What other new applications of biomimicry are still to be discovered? God’s wisdom shows in what He has made. Humans have no excuse for failing to recognize His eternal power and divine nature (Romans 1:20).

References: sciencedirect.com HERE and HERE, and popsci.com

Some other examples of biomimicry: Salvinia, Kingfishers, Harriers, Cacti, Beetles, Sponges, Cicada Wings

October 1, 2025September 30, 2025

Atlantic Salmon Migration: An Impressive Life Story

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) can grow up to 30 inches (76 cm) and weigh about 12 pounds (5.5 kg) after spending two years at sea. In four or more years, they can grow much larger, with a record caught in 1960 weighing 109 pounds (49.44 kg). Atlantic salmon migration is an impressive life story.

For four years or more, juvenile Atlantic salmon live in freshwater rivers or streams where they hatched. When the time is right, they undergo a process called smoltification, a complex series of physiological changes that prepare them for life in saltwater. During smoltification, their skin turns silvery and reflective, and their body shape changes. Their gills produce an enzyme that removes sodium from their cells, and various mechanisms are activated to regulate body fluids in the seawater environment.

The first stage of Atlantic salmon migration begins with their journey to the Atlantic Ocean. In the ocean, their diet shifts from primarily insects to larger foods, such as shrimp, eels, squid, and small fish. While in the ocean, they grow faster than in freshwater. After two, four, or more years at sea, something triggers the fish to return to the river where they hatched.

When the salmon reach the river’s mouth, they stop eating and swim upstream. Their primary goal at this point is to return to where their life began. There, they spawn, reproducing to pass on their genes to the next generation. Unlike Pacific salmon, which die after spawning, Atlantic salmon can sometimes recondition themselves to return to the sea and repeat this cycle of migration and spawning. The fact that Atlantic salmon stay in the ocean for varying lengths of time means that a drought in their native river or stream for a year may not halt the reproduction of that year’s salmon.

This impressive life story prompts several questions. How does the Atlantic salmon return to the stream where it hatched? Apparently, they can detect the precise chemical signature of their stream by odor. Another question is why this fish undergoes such a demanding process. Many other creatures in the ecosystems benefit from the salmon’s migration. As predators, Atlantic salmon help control populations of insects in the rivers and smaller fish and other creatures in the ocean. As prey, they serve as food for larger fish, seals, and sharks. They are also valued as a delicious and nutritious food source for humans.

A more challenging question is, how could the impressive life story of the Atlantic salmon migration have happened by chance? We believe it is not by chance. This is more than survival of the fittest; it is a complex system where one animal benefits many others, including humans. Once again, we observe the Creator’s design at work.

September 30, 2025September 29, 2025

Walking Upright: Unique to Humans

Those who reject belief in God assume that humans evolved mechanically and that there was no need for a creator. Unfortunately, the media promotes stories that cater to those who dismiss faith in God, making it easier for them to identify as “none” when asked about their religious beliefs. A recent article is an example of not fully explaining the design required to enable walking upright.

A Reuters News Agency article by Mike Blake titled “How Humans Evolved to Walk Upright” fails to mention a critical design feature for walking upright. The article discusses a study of pelvis designs in primates by Harvard University evolution biologist Terence Capellini. It suggests that the shape of the human pelvis explains how humans walk upright. However, upright posture involves more than just the pelvis.

The opening into the skull that connects the spinal cord to the brain is called the foramen magnum (Latin for “great hole”). It is positioned at the center of the human skull but located towards the rear in other primates. Besides the pelvis, the foramen magnum’s position is an essential part of the design that supports bipedalism, or walking upright on two legs. The human pelvis also plays a crucial role in forming the birth canal that allows the passage of babies with larger brains. The position of the foramen magnum is an essential component of the design that enables bipedalism, or walking upright on two legs.

The Reuters article mentions that researchers identified over 300 genes involved in the design that enables walking upright. The lead author of the study stated that it is not just a single gene but many DNA regulatory elements that must work together to accomplish what seems so simple to humans. Chimpanzees sometimes walk on two legs, but it requires more effort because they lack the unique human design features. Birds, kangaroos, and a few other animals walk on two legs, but they do so because of anatomically different designs.

Bipedalism grants humans the ability to use our hands for carrying objects, using tools, creating art, raising and cooking food, while also allowing us to observe our surroundings from a higher vantage point. We can walk and run long distances because of our distinctive body design. Was this unique design merely an accident of natural selection, or the work of an intelligent Creator?

References: reuters.com, nature.com, and britannica.com

September 24, 2025September 23, 2025

The Song Sparrow’s Success

Many sparrows visit my feeders regularly. Looking at my copy of the National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America, I see that 19 pages are dedicated to various sparrow species. While many are limited to specific areas of North America, some are widespread across the continent. One such species is the song sparrow (Melospiza melodia). Some scientists have been researching the reason for the song sparrow’s success.

Song sparrows are divided into 25 subspecies spread from the East Coast to the West Coast, from Alaska’s remote islands to the Mexican volcanic plateau. These birds may seem quite ordinary, but they are extraordinarily successful at surviving and thriving in boreal forests, coastal wetlands, and even deserts. The secret of the song sparrow’s success is that each subspecies has unique traits that help it survive in its specific habitat.

In the Alaskan Aleutian Islands, the maxima subspecies has larger bodies to better conserve body heat. The fallax subspecies, found in the Sonoran and Mohave deserts, has lighter plumage to blend into the desert’s brown landscape. The caurina subspecies of the Pacific Northwest has darker feathers to resist moisture-related microbes. In Atlantic Coast salt marshes, the atlantica subspecies has larger bills to assist in evaporative cooling.

Scientists from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology and the University of British Columbia sequenced the DNA of nearly every subspecies to understand the song sparrow’s success. They found that genes and the environment work together to enable variations among subspecies, allowing them to thrive in diverse ecosystems.

This new research confirms what we have previously stated. God has given each species the ability to adapt and change over time to fit changing environments. That adaptability is key to the song sparrow’s success. Sparrows can evolve and adapt, yet they remain sparrows. This ability to change highlights God’s divine power in His creations (Romans 1:20). Jesus affirmed God’s love for even the sparrows, and much more for every human being. (See Matthew 10:29-31.)

Reference: National Geographic Field Guide to the Birds of North America and allaboutbirds.org

September 23, 2025September 22, 2025

First Responders in the Body

David Coppedge wrote a very interesting article about the body’s “first responders.” He described four instances where the body has its own superheroes ready in advance to handle and prevent crises that could lead to life-threatening diseases, such as cancer. These first responders in the body had to be present before they were needed. They are like police or firefighters who need the skill and training to come to the rescue when necessary. Planning and preparation indicate design.

One line of defense against infections is provided by cilia, which sweep the airways clean with wave-like motions. These hair-like structures are familiar, but recent research has shown that they provide upward as well as lateral flow to push fluids away from the airway surface. This action helps prevent bacteria, viruses, and harmful particles from reaching the cells of the airways and causing infections.

Another first responder removes toxic waste called reactive oxygen species (ROS) that develop in the cell’s mitochondria. Since these are toxic substances, ROS must be handled carefully. Organelles called peroxisomes detoxify these dangerous chemicals, sparing mitochondria from oxidative stress. This process requires two proteins that are resistant to toxins and produce a bridge that allows ROS to move safely between organelles.

This line of defense has been compared to the comic superhero, the Incredible Hulk. Dendritic cells that are part of the immune system travel through tissues looking for problems to solve, like cops on a beat. Usually, they slip through tissues, removing “bad guys” one at a time. However, when they come across a “mob” in their way, these narrow and flexible immune cells expand like the Incredible Hulk, with bulging muscles to push obstacles out of the way.

One of the first responders in the body is compared to Spartan warriors. It is the critical enzyme SPRTN. Before a cell divides, its DNA must be copied for the new cell. Unwanted proteins can latch onto the DNA strand and clog the copying machinery with cross-links called DPCs. That can lead to premature aging, cancer, or other problems. The SPRTN enzyme finds and repairs the clogs by degrading the proteins that cause them. SPRTN must degrade the clog without harming the surrounding tissue, and it does that by detecting ubiquitin tags that the DPCs carry. Understanding how SPRTN works enables scientists to develop strategies to enhance defense against age-related diseases and tissue damage caused by cancer therapies.

All of these discoveries were made through empirical observation by competent and respected scientists and reported in science journals. The first responders in the body are ready and prepared to serve and protect the human body. Like first responders to natural disasters, they are not there by accident but by a designed plan for defense and protection.

Reference: evolutionnews.org

September 19, 2025September 18, 2025

The Homochirality of Organic Molecules

Yesterday, we discussed the chirality, or handedness, of molecules, especially amino acids and proteins. The homochirality of organic molecules refers to their requirement for the same handedness, a mystery that has puzzled scientists since 1848, when Louis Pasteur first observed that some life-essential molecules had mirror-image forms. Amino acids used by living cells and the proteins they build have left-handed chirality, while DNA, RNA, and the sugars forming their building blocks are all right-handed. These facts raise a question for those who believe life arose spontaneously.

Left-handed proteins and right-handed DNA are found in all living organisms. The spiral structure of DNA needs to twist in a specific direction to function properly, but what caused the right-handed sugar molecules to come together? When half of all amino acid molecules in nature exhibit right chirality and the other half left, what force could have gathered only the left-handed ones to form the first proteins?

Scientists have speculated that cosmic rays or polarized light might have triggered this process. However, even if such forces created an initial bias for the same-handedness, they could not sustain and amplify it enough to produce a significant number of homochiral molecules to form the first living cells. In 1999, researchers proposed that electron spin created magnetism, causing left-handed peptides (short chains of amino acids) to bind to magnetic surfaces like magnetite. But this still did not explain how the homochirality of organic molecules could be amplified sufficiently to generate living cells.

Some scientists consider RNA to be the key to the origin of life. In 2009, a group of researchers studying RNA molecules suggested that a crystal called RAO could react to produce two of RNA’s four nucleotides. In 2023, other researchers used magnetism to produce RAO crystals with homochirality. However, this process required a magnetic field 6,500 times stronger than Earth’s magnetic field. Additionally, RAO has only been shown to produce two of RNA’s four nucleotides, still falling short of generating the complete homochirality of molecules needed for life.

As 2024 ended, NASA-funded research identified a problem with the so-called “RNA world” hypothesis. Simulating early Earth conditions, they found that RNA did not show a chemical bias toward selecting homochiral amino acids. The current thinking is that the homochirality of organic molecules “could have emerged through later evolutionary pressures.” In other words, we have the “evolution-of-the-gaps” theory because, of course, evolution can do anything you can imagine.

Currently, NASA scientists are analyzing samples brought back from asteroid Bennu, hoping that molecular evidence from meteorites and asteroids will demonstrate that the building blocks for life came from beyond Earth. I suspect that the force responsible for bringing life to Earth did originate outside our planet, and even beyond the universe.

References: science.org and nasa.gov

September 17, 2025September 15, 2025

Axolotls, or Mexican Salamanders

People often call them Mexican walking fish, but they are not fish. They are amphibians, specifically salamanders. Axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum) or Mexican salamanders look like a fish because it never fully leaves its larval stage.

Unlike other salamanders and frogs, axolotls do not go through metamorphosis. When they become adults, they still look like tadpoles. They develop tiny legs but keep their gills instead of growing lungs and moving to land. The external gills and caudal fin, which are usually only found on salamander larvae, give axolotls a fish-like appearance.

Genetic differences lead to four color variations, from black or olive to pale pink or gold. They eat insects, worms, and small fish by sucking food into their mouths like a vacuum cleaner. In the wild, they are critically threatened and close to extinction because their last native habitat, Lake Xochimilco, is being overtaken by urban growth from Mexico City. However, many of these salamanders are bred in captivity as exotic pets and for research.

Axolotls are valuable for studying heart and nerve functions. They have an incredible ability to heal themselves, capable of regenerating severed limbs and some internal organs. Their injuries heal without leaving scars. Axolotls can also accept transplants of organs, eyes, or even brain parts without rejection issues.

Scientists study axolotls to discover new secrets of healing. God has given us many resources in the natural world and the ability to learn from them. As we have said many times, science and faith are friends, not enemies.

September 15, 2025September 14, 2025

Shocking Amount of Food Wasted

God has given us more than enough food for every man, woman, and child on this planet. Jesus told His followers to use what God has given. In Matthew 25:34-46, Jesus tells us what His disciples need to do. Providing food, water, and clothing are at the top of His list. Those who don’t provide these things for those in need are condemned. The problem is the shocking amount of food wasted.

I am directly involved nationally with programs that provide for those who are in need. Locally, I am involved with a program called “Feeding America,” and our small congregation provides food for over 100 people every month. Similar programs, both nationally and locally, are conducted by people who call themselves “Christians.” There are no atheist programs anywhere doing this.

So, if all this is going on, why is there a shortage of food worldwide? In the United States, one in every five kids doesn’t have enough to eat in spite of the fact that 530,000 metric tons of food are thrown out. The shocking amount of food wasted in schools is an example. Data from audits of schools in Miami and Orlando, Florida, show that the food thrown out amounts to 1.06 billion pounds from school cafeterias every year. These cafeterias also waste 20.9 billion gallons of water annually, resulting in a loss of $1.7 billion. Sixty percent of cafeteria waste is fruit and unopened milk.

This is just one case in two large Florida cities. Can you imagine how much waste there is nationally? As America continues to reject God and Christianity, we can expect this problem to get worse. In the biblical record, we see God telling humans to use what He has already given them. God doesn’t condone waste and will not provide for us what we can provide for ourselves. We see passages like Proverbs 6:6-11 where people who won’t work are called “sluggards” who will end up in poverty. Christians must lead the way by not wasting what God has given us.

Reference: World Wildlife for Fall 2025, page 4.

September 12, 2025September 12, 2025

What Makes Humans So Special?

Many animal rights advocates argue that we should treat animals the same as humans. To do otherwise is what they call “speciesism,” and they consider it perhaps even worse than racism. Why should humans be favored over other species? What makes humans so special?

An article in Scientific American caught my attention. It was written by Kate Wong and titled “Humans Are Not So Special After All.” The article points out that since 1960, when Jane Goodall observed a chimpanzee using grass and twigs as tools to coax termites from their nests, people have discovered that animals can do things previously thought only humans could do. Wong suggests that humans are not unique and that even plants can think and count.

Observations have shown that animals can perform amazing feats, but isn’t it possible that they do these things because they were programmed for survival by their Designer? It seems to me that the examples Wong provides fall short of proving her point. What makes humans so special involves more than the intelligent actions animals perform.

One example Wong uses is that brown capuchin monkeys decline a treat when they see another receiving a better one. She claims this shows a “sense of fairness,” but couldn’t it also indicate a sense of greed? She states that apes, monkeys, and elephants “mourn the loss of bonded individuals.” However, those species are programmed with a group/herd mentality that depends on each other for survival. She also mentions how mice and rats are affected by the pain or suffering of a fellow species member; but rather than compassion, could that not be fear for their own safety?

Wong also mentions an orca that made worldwide headlines for carrying her dead calf for 17 days while swimming 1,000 miles. To me, that appears to be a programmed survival instinct that failed to recognize there was no hope for the calf’s survival. The Eurasian magpie that “recognized itself” in a mirror reminds me of a turkey rooster that “recognized” his reflection in my basement window and kept tapping on the glass to challenge this supposed “competitor” for his territory.

For an example of plant “consciousness,” Wong presents the Venus flytrap and the fact that it “remembers” being touched. After two touches, it closes to trap the insect. After five touches, it secretes enzymes to digest the prey. But this does not demonstrate “thinking.” It is very simple to program a counting subroutine that causes a device to perform an action after two, five, or any number of signals from an outside source. That is programming, not thinking. The same applies to plants that produce chemicals summoning predators for defense when an animal chews on them. Again, it seems to be a survival program built into the plant.

Wong mentions anthropomorphism as “ascribing human thoughts, feelings, and motivations to animals.” While that is something people often do—particularly with dogs—I think Wong herself may be guilty of it.

The bottom line is that none of the examples Wong cites can compare to what makes humans so special. Humans alone are created in the image of God. We have minds unlike the brain functions of any animal. When we see animals do amazing things, we should give credit to the Creator who gave them those survival abilities.

Reference: “Humans Are Not So Special After All” by Kate Wong in Scientific American, September 2025.

September 4, 2025September 3, 2025

Why Are There So Many Species?

How many species of living things exist? So far, scientists have identified, classified, and named 1.2 million species, according to worldatlas.com. The same source states there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. Nobody knows for certain, but other estimates—excluding viruses and bacteria—range from 10 million to 100 million species. Why are there so many species of living things?

How quickly are scientists discovering and describing new species? According to worldatlas.com, they identify and assign genus and species names to 15,000 to 18,000 new species each year. At that rate, if we assume 1.2 million have already been named and there are 10 million in total, the task will take over 500 years, but that’s a conservative estimate. Clearly, biologists still have a lot of work ahead.

There are between six and seven thousand known mammal species according to ourworldindata.org, . But the insect world surpasses that number. For example, beetle species alone number between 350,000 and 400,000. Each year, biologists identify most of the “new species” from museum specimens discovered earlier but not carefully studied. Some species in the wild are facing extinction, and some specimens in museums may already be extinct.

We may ask, “Why are there so many species?” God created diverse kinds of living things and endowed them with the ability to adapt to different environments. Each new species fills a niche in the incredible diversity of animal and plant life that makes our existence possible.

We have previously described the various taxonomic classifications used to categorize living things. (You can read that HERE.) “Species” is the lowest and most specific taxonomic category used by scientists to describe life forms. God created humans with an insatiable curiosity and an amazing ability to organize and categorize information. Then, He gave us plenty of life forms to study. We believe that we can learn more about God as we explore His creations. (Romans 1:20)